Objective 1- Problems psychology faces as a young science?
Psychology is described as the study of the mind, the characterization of the mental makeup. As many would say, the mind is unpredictable, harboring thoughts and emotions only to be read by meticulous observation. The thing we often forget is that humans are imperfect beings, we make mistakes. We may think we know what an individual is and isn’t capable of, but how do we know this? Not everything we infer is certain, there is always gray area and a chance that things may not turn out.
1879, when psychology was born, a little more than 130 years ago. Younger than the United States, but the human mind has been around for much longer. Humans immerged on this earth thousands of years ago, and we can only try and understand how their thought processes worked. Hence, this study has only advanced as far as we have been able to observe the psychological bounds it allows.
The founders have paved the way so we can better understand the way the brain works, but there is so much gray area, so much that has yet to be determined as the sole purpose of behavior. Theories still being developed, published, and tested. There is so much we have yet to uncover, to explore. As a young developing science, there is vast unexplored territory. Hesitation awaits when we put one foot in the world of the unknown, so we are still trying to decipher the human psyche.
For each behavior or condition there are always discrepancy between theories, meaning that there can be inaccuracy in diagnosis. Now, there are some very definite conditions and some very accurate theories that have been proven to be certain. As I will restate, the mind has a will of its own, it has the ability to overcome and fall victim to a mental disease. Mental health is complicated, but oh so important.
Still taking small steps, the field of psychology is extremely imperative in the understanding of humanity. Working everyday as an intricate part of the way each of us live our lives, problems may occur with the surety of the predications thrust upon those who suffer from illness of the mind. Even with the beauty we are able to produce as advanced mammals, it is our mental abilities that allow us to do these things. Some of which we may never understand, we can only hope to solve every problem, cure every ailment, and dominate the impossible.
Psychology is breaking down how these things are imaginable, as technology is advancing so is the understanding of the field. There will constantly be people who will question the ability of all that psychology is capable of, and all that is already documented. This is accredited to the gray area that some individuals are incapable of sorting through logically to find the true causes of the problems. In the years to come there will be more breakthroughs, treatments, and reasoning behind the cognitive processes. Until then, there can only be more observation and progression in the field.
Resources: http://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html
Photo Below: http://www.brookdalecc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Psychology-Human-Services.jpg
Objective2 -Identify the major theoretical and professional perspectives in psychology and their basic assumptions.
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As the question depicts there is not just one perspective on psychology. We can begin with Structuralism and Functionalism which are the earliest of the concepts. According to Google Dictionary functionalism is the belief in or stress on the practical application of a thing, in particular. Structuralism is (according to google dictionary) " a method of interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience that focuses on relationships of contrast between elements in a conceptual system that reflect patterns underlying a superficial diversity". As time went on new ideas about psychology began to develop, including Edward Brandford Titchener's idea of introspection, which is also described as looking inward into oneself. Other examples consist of William James' spin off of Charles Darwin's adaptive theory used for survival, Margaret Floy Washburn's look into the animal mind, or even B.F. Skinner's observation of how consequences shape decisions. To give a more in depth approach John B. Watson and Rosaile Rayner's grown breaking but controversial work with the child "Little Albert." This showed how classical conditioning worked, Albert was shown as series of objects/animals at first showing no fear, but then when faced with a negative stimuli associated with objects he began to show fear just by seeing the presented with the various stimuli. This could be considered cruel and unusual but that is how we know much about what we do know today, simply from psychologists conducting experiments that are outside of the norm. It is an assumption that there are a lot of negative results included in the practice of psychology. Assumed by many, and correct in the past, but we know what we know by the road less traveled by the observers of behavior the mind.
http://www.simplypsychology.org/little-albert.jpg
As you see in the image above it is Little Albert being shown a rat and then a loud noise is applied (negative stimuli) to cause him to fear the rat.
Resources:
First Image: http://sd.keepcalm-o-matic.co.uk/i/keep-calm-and-practice-psychology.png
http://psychology.about.com/od/classicpsychologystudies/a/little-albert-experiment.htm
Psychology: Tenth Edition in Modules By: David G. Meyers (Pages 3-4)
As you see in the image above it is Little Albert being shown a rat and then a loud noise is applied (negative stimuli) to cause him to fear the rat.
Resources:
First Image: http://sd.keepcalm-o-matic.co.uk/i/keep-calm-and-practice-psychology.png
http://psychology.about.com/od/classicpsychologystudies/a/little-albert-experiment.htm
Psychology: Tenth Edition in Modules By: David G. Meyers (Pages 3-4)
Objective 3- The characteristics of a good (reliable) theory.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/7/8/26784885/918719379.jpg)
A theory is an explanation using an integrated set of
principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. This is to give the framework for creating a
hypothesis; determining a relationship, cause-and-effect, between 2 or more
variables. This gives us the basis of what we must include when trying to
develop a decent/good theory whether it be dealing with psychology or any other
field of study. Hopefully, by the end of our development this experimental
thought will be of great use to our intended accomplishments.
Dealing with this type of discovery, the goal is to test the theory to see if it is viable. Example being, Charles Darwin’s Evolutional Theory. Survival of the fittest, he had a theory about creation and how species were able to adapt and survive throughout time. He discovered that there was more to his words than just talk, in the Galapagos Islands, when he studied the basic finch and its closest relations. Darwin came to realize that in each specific environment the finches had adapted individually so that it could continue to inhabit such a dwelling.
Limited to the technology of his time, he was only able to make observations based on the knowledge he himself was able to conjure. Ending up with one of the most revered and controversial proposals of his era, including the one we live in now. He concluded that the most adapted birds were able to linger and survive the longest, those who failed to do so, perished. Charles Darwin developed his theory, tested it by observation and uncovering facts based on the collection of data, this enabled his comparison (testing) of the species and their characteristics.
This is just a small example of what a good theory is and how it should be carried out and viewed. A counter example of what a theory is not meant to be, could result in no hypothesis, a mindless guess and or nothing to back the statements made. None supported and the rambling of those who cannot put together the proper means to complete a provable situation. These are not proper means to base theories, there needs to be work and writing behind the speech.
A theory is produced through work and the will to better the subject in which it is based upon. The world is continues to question and produce more and more hypotheses, to yet be proved and published. There is a way to format these thoughts, but you must have manipulating factors, research and observation to add credibility to what you are trying to communicate. Though it may seem very much like a “shot in the dark”, so were the same cognitive possesses of the greats.
Resources: http://quizlet.com/10003487/four-characteristics-of-good-psychological-research-flash-cards/
and Page 26 of Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, By: David G. Meyers
Dealing with this type of discovery, the goal is to test the theory to see if it is viable. Example being, Charles Darwin’s Evolutional Theory. Survival of the fittest, he had a theory about creation and how species were able to adapt and survive throughout time. He discovered that there was more to his words than just talk, in the Galapagos Islands, when he studied the basic finch and its closest relations. Darwin came to realize that in each specific environment the finches had adapted individually so that it could continue to inhabit such a dwelling.
Limited to the technology of his time, he was only able to make observations based on the knowledge he himself was able to conjure. Ending up with one of the most revered and controversial proposals of his era, including the one we live in now. He concluded that the most adapted birds were able to linger and survive the longest, those who failed to do so, perished. Charles Darwin developed his theory, tested it by observation and uncovering facts based on the collection of data, this enabled his comparison (testing) of the species and their characteristics.
This is just a small example of what a good theory is and how it should be carried out and viewed. A counter example of what a theory is not meant to be, could result in no hypothesis, a mindless guess and or nothing to back the statements made. None supported and the rambling of those who cannot put together the proper means to complete a provable situation. These are not proper means to base theories, there needs to be work and writing behind the speech.
A theory is produced through work and the will to better the subject in which it is based upon. The world is continues to question and produce more and more hypotheses, to yet be proved and published. There is a way to format these thoughts, but you must have manipulating factors, research and observation to add credibility to what you are trying to communicate. Though it may seem very much like a “shot in the dark”, so were the same cognitive possesses of the greats.
Resources: http://quizlet.com/10003487/four-characteristics-of-good-psychological-research-flash-cards/
and Page 26 of Psychology Tenth Edition in Modules, By: David G. Meyers
Objective 4- What constitutes valid and reliable observation especially with regards to operationalizing variables, experimenter bias, demand characteristics, and unobtrusive measures.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/7/8/26784885/664225.jpg)
Observation is a very important part of psychology, it gives insight into how things occur naturally. Naturally, that should be excluded from bias or unfair methods of observation. This is to ensure that the data collected is reliable and in regards of operationalizing variables it is described as a way of making sure that bias is not added into the experimental processes. Operationalizing variables are basically making sure you have an independent and dependent variable that can be manipulated to find the data needed.
Experimenter Bias (according to Psychology: Tenth Edition in Modules by David G. Meyers) is where the experimenter's state of mind or expectations affect the data of the experiment to the extent it is consider inaccurate. For example, if I had to determine the average public opinion on Lethal Injection, and let's say that I am all for it. Subconsciously that could cause me to sway my receiving of information from my subjects. Instead of an open minded approach and allowing the individual accurately and truthfully decide their opinion I could say or do something that would cause the said person to answer inaccurately
Demand Characteristics (according to www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/demand_characteristics.html) is "a term used in Cognitive Psychology to denote the situation where the results of an experiment are biased because the experimenters' expectancies regarding the performance of the participants on a particular task create an implicit demand for the participants to perform as expected." Going off of the example of Lethal Injection above, demand characteristics recognize that my method of interviewing tainted the results of the experiment.
Unobtrusive measures (according to About.com: Sociology) it is the observations without the knowledge of those being observed. Referring again to Lethal Injection, so in my interviewing this would be me talking to them but not knowing their view on the matter, it is randomized. Which is what this sort of testing should be based on.
Resources:
http://sociology.about.com/od/U_Index/g/Unobtrusive-Measure.htm
Experimenter Bias (according to Psychology: Tenth Edition in Modules by David G. Meyers) is where the experimenter's state of mind or expectations affect the data of the experiment to the extent it is consider inaccurate. For example, if I had to determine the average public opinion on Lethal Injection, and let's say that I am all for it. Subconsciously that could cause me to sway my receiving of information from my subjects. Instead of an open minded approach and allowing the individual accurately and truthfully decide their opinion I could say or do something that would cause the said person to answer inaccurately
Demand Characteristics (according to www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/demand_characteristics.html) is "a term used in Cognitive Psychology to denote the situation where the results of an experiment are biased because the experimenters' expectancies regarding the performance of the participants on a particular task create an implicit demand for the participants to perform as expected." Going off of the example of Lethal Injection above, demand characteristics recognize that my method of interviewing tainted the results of the experiment.
Unobtrusive measures (according to About.com: Sociology) it is the observations without the knowledge of those being observed. Referring again to Lethal Injection, so in my interviewing this would be me talking to them but not knowing their view on the matter, it is randomized. Which is what this sort of testing should be based on.
Resources:
http://sociology.about.com/od/U_Index/g/Unobtrusive-Measure.htm
Objective 5- The differences between correlational and experimental research especially with respect to issues of causality and prediction.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/7/8/26784885/671523340.jpg)
To begin, correlational research has the purpose of detecting naturally occurring, not just cause and effect. Whereas, experimental research is the manipulating one variable to produce another reaction dependent.
Example of correlational would be tracking naturally occurring migraines and if there is a cause for these severe pains. However that isn't the only goal, they could be trying to detect genetics or other problems that the migraines could attribute too.
Example being for experimental would be giving an individual stimuli to cause a migraine and manipulating that at different levels.
When dealing with Correlational research it is hard to determine causality because of the naturally occurring aspect of the observation but experimental research from testing, you begin to have an idea of what the outcome will turn out to be. This also can apply to prediction, it is hard to predict something that is still yet to be found or is unknown. Hence, the difficulty in accuracy.
Resources:
http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/g/experimental.htm
Psychology: Tenth Edition in Module by: David G. Meyers
Migraine Image above: http://pedremd.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/migraine_painscan.jpg
Example of correlational would be tracking naturally occurring migraines and if there is a cause for these severe pains. However that isn't the only goal, they could be trying to detect genetics or other problems that the migraines could attribute too.
Example being for experimental would be giving an individual stimuli to cause a migraine and manipulating that at different levels.
When dealing with Correlational research it is hard to determine causality because of the naturally occurring aspect of the observation but experimental research from testing, you begin to have an idea of what the outcome will turn out to be. This also can apply to prediction, it is hard to predict something that is still yet to be found or is unknown. Hence, the difficulty in accuracy.
Resources:
http://psychology.about.com/od/eindex/g/experimental.htm
Psychology: Tenth Edition in Module by: David G. Meyers
Migraine Image above: http://pedremd.files.wordpress.com/2010/04/migraine_painscan.jpg
Objective 6- What a positive, negative, and zero correlation is.
![Picture](http://www.editmysite.com/editor/images/na.png)
In this example correlation is between two variables first we will explore positive correlation, negative correlation, then ending with zero correlation. The range is +1 to -1.
+1 has been described as a perfect positive correlation, meaning both variables go in the same direction.
Example: If you eat more junk food you will gain more weight.
-1 has been described as a perfect negative correlation, meaning as one variable goes up then the other goes down.
Example: If you eat more healthy food you will loose weight.
Zero correlation means that there is absolutely no correlation between the two variables.
Example: The relationship between weight-loss and making it on Broadway. ☺
+1 has been described as a perfect positive correlation, meaning both variables go in the same direction.
Example: If you eat more junk food you will gain more weight.
-1 has been described as a perfect negative correlation, meaning as one variable goes up then the other goes down.
Example: If you eat more healthy food you will loose weight.
Zero correlation means that there is absolutely no correlation between the two variables.
Example: The relationship between weight-loss and making it on Broadway. ☺
Image 1:http://mste.illinois.edu/courses/ci330ms/youtsey/Scatter2.gif
Positive Correlation Example
Image 2: http://mste.illinois.edu/courses/ci330ms/youtsey/Scatter1.gif
Negative Correlation Example
Image 3:http://mste.illinois.edu/courses/ci330ms/youtsey/Graph5.gif
No correlation Example
Resources:
http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/def_correlation.htm
Positive Correlation Example
Image 2: http://mste.illinois.edu/courses/ci330ms/youtsey/Scatter1.gif
Negative Correlation Example
Image 3:http://mste.illinois.edu/courses/ci330ms/youtsey/Graph5.gif
No correlation Example
Resources:
http://psychology.about.com/od/cindex/g/def_correlation.htm
Objective 7- Construct an experiment from a given hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.
![Picture](/uploads/2/6/7/8/26784885/903396715.png)
When constructing an Experiment there are several things to
understand. What are we trying to determine? An abstract example would be Pigs
Flying. How do we make this happen? What are the limits of science that can or
cannot allow the creation of such a species? This begins the construction of my
non-realistic experiment.
Well my hypothesis is that the science will not allow my pig to survive or even materialize, but if it does it will take a miracle and some major genetic bonds to be crossed. Well my independent variable would be the genetics, crossing swine DNA with that of a stable flying being. Allowing the dependent variable, wings and other bird-like characteristics to develop on my masterpiece creature. So, how I manipulate the genetics (independent variable) will affect the abnormality of the pig (dependent variable).
Now, is this a possible scenario? Not in the current era, in books, maybe. Experimentation is all to do with having a plan and allowing trial and error to take place. It’s about the discovery and about the mystery and that it might work, against all odds. Who knows, someday this may be possible, for now it’s an example of what would be incredibly amazing, if it were to ever develop.
Resources:http://www.simplypsychology.org/experimental-method.html
Photo above: http://tranloi.com/tag/when-pigs-fly/
Well my hypothesis is that the science will not allow my pig to survive or even materialize, but if it does it will take a miracle and some major genetic bonds to be crossed. Well my independent variable would be the genetics, crossing swine DNA with that of a stable flying being. Allowing the dependent variable, wings and other bird-like characteristics to develop on my masterpiece creature. So, how I manipulate the genetics (independent variable) will affect the abnormality of the pig (dependent variable).
Now, is this a possible scenario? Not in the current era, in books, maybe. Experimentation is all to do with having a plan and allowing trial and error to take place. It’s about the discovery and about the mystery and that it might work, against all odds. Who knows, someday this may be possible, for now it’s an example of what would be incredibly amazing, if it were to ever develop.
Resources:http://www.simplypsychology.org/experimental-method.html
Photo above: http://tranloi.com/tag/when-pigs-fly/